不管是大型電腦或個人電腦都需具有「中央處理單元」(central process unit,簡稱 CPU)。CPU 是電腦的「腦」,其電子電路負責處理所有軟體正確運作所需的所有任務,如算術、邏輯、控制、輸入和輸出操作等等。雖然早期的設計即可以讓一個指令同時做兩、三件不同的工作;但為了簡單化,我們在這裡所談的工作將只是執行算術和邏輯運算的工作(arithmetic and logic unit,簡稱 ALU),如將兩個數加在一起。在這一簡化的定義下,CPU 在任何一個時刻均只能執行一件工作而已。
-----廣告,請繼續往下閱讀-----
在個人電腦剛出現只能用於一般事物的處理時,CPU 均能非常勝任地完成任務。但電腦圖形和動畫的出現帶來了第一批運算密集型工作負載後,CPU 開始顯示心有餘而力不足:例如電玩動畫需要應用程式處理數以萬計的像素(pixel),每個像素都有自己的顏色、光強度、和運動等, 使得 CPU 根本沒辦法在短時間內完成這些工作。於是出現了主機板上之「顯示插卡」來支援補助 CPU。
Turroni F, Milani C, Duranti S, Lugli GA, Bernasconi S, Margolles A, Di Pierro F, van Sinderen D, Ventura M. The infant gut microbiome as a microbial organ influencing host well-being. Italian J Pediatrics. 2020;46:16.
Olsza k T, An D, Zeissig S, Vera MP, Richter J, Franke A,Glickman JN, Siebert R, Baron RM, Kasper DL, et al. Microbial exposure during early life has persistent effects on natural killer T cell function. Science. 2012;336(6080):489–493. doi:10.1126/science.1219328.
Gensollen T, Iyer SS, Kasper DL, Blumberg RS. How colonisation by microbiota in early life shapes the immune system. Science. 2016;352(6825):539–544. doi:10.1126/science.aad9378.
Scheepers L, Penders J, Mbakwa CA, Thijs C, Mommers M, Arts I. The intestinal microbiota composition and weight development in children: the KOALA birth cohort study. Int J Obesity. 2015;39:16–25. doi:10.1038/ijo.2014.178.
Milani C, Duranti S, Bottacini F, Casey E, Turroni F, Mahony J, Belzer C, Delgado Palacio S, Arboleya Montes S, Mancabelli L, et al. The first microbial colonizers of the human gut: composition, activities and health implications of the infant gut microbiota. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2017;81(4):e00036–17.
Mulligan CM, Friedman JE. Maternal modifiers of the infant gut microbiota: metabolic consequences. J Endocrinol. 2017;235(1):R1–R12. doi:10.1530/JOE-17-0303.
Fujimura KE, Sitarik AR, Havstad S, Lin DL, Levan S, Fadrosh D, Panzer AR, LaMere B, Rackaityte E, Lukacs NW, et al. Neonatal gut microbiota associates with childhood multisensitised atopy and T cell differentiation. Nat Med. 2016;22(10):1187–1191. doi:10.1038/nm.4176.
Ismail IH, Boyle RJ, Licciardi PV, Oppedisano F, Lahtinen S, Robins-Browne RM, Tang MLK. Early gut colonization by Bifidobacterium breve and B. catenulatum differentially modulates eczema risk in children at high risk of developing allergic disease. Paediatric Allergy Immunol. 2016;27(8):838–846. doi:10.1111/pai.12646.
De Filippo C, Cavalieri D, Di Paola M, Ramazzotti M, Poullet JB, Massart S, Collini S, Pieraccini G, Lionetti P. Impact of diet in shaping gut microbiota revealed by acomparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2010;107(33):14691–14696. doi:10.1073/pnas.1005963107.
Khine WWT, Zhang YW, Goie JY, Wong MS, Liong MT, Lee YY, Cao H, Lee Y-K. Gut microbiome of preadolescent children of two ethnicities residing in three distant cities. Sci Rep. 2019;9(1):78931. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-44369-y.
Kisuse J, La-Ongkham O, Nakphaichit M, Therdtatha P, Momoda R, Tanaka M, Fukuda S, Popluechai S, Kespechara K, Sonomoto K, et al. Urban diets linked to gut microbiome and metabolome alterations in children: a comparative cross-sectional study in Thailand. Front Microbiol. 2018;9:1345. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.01345.
Nakayama J, Yamamoto A, Palermo-Conde LA,Higashi K, Sonomoto K, Tan J, Lee Y-K. Impact of Westernized diet on gut microbiota in children on Leyte islands. Front Microbiol. 2017;8:197. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.00197.
Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, Trehan I, Dominguez-Bello MG, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Baldassano RN, Anokhin AP, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012;486(7402):222–227. doi:10.1038/nature11053.
Nakayama J, Yamamoto A, Palermo-Conde LA, Higashi K, Sonomoto K, Tan J, Lee Y-K. Diversity in gut bacterial community of school-age children in Asia. Sci Rep. 2015;5:8397. doi:10.1038/srep08397.
Wu GD, Chen J, Hoffmann C, Bittinger K, Chen -Y-Y, Keilbaugh SA, Bewtra M, Knights D, Walters WA, Knight R, et al. Linking long-term dietary patterns with gut microbial enterotypes. Science. 2011;334:6052. doi:10.1126/science.1208344.
Zhang JC, Guo Z, Lim AA, Zheng Y, Koh EY, Ho D, Qiao J, Huo D, Hou Q, Huang W, et al. Mongolians core gut microbiota and its correlation with seasonal dietary changes. Sci Rep. 2014;4:5001. doi:10.1038/srep05001.
Pelzer E, Gomez-Arango LF, Barrett HL, Nitert MD. Review: maternal health and the placental microbiome. Placenta. 2017;54:30–37. doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2016.12.003.
Rautava S, Luoto R, Salminen S, Isolauri E. Perinatal microbial contact and the origins of human disease. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2012;9:565–576. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2012.144.
Penders J, Thijs C, Vink C, Stelma CV, Snijders B, Kummeling I, van den Brandt PA, Stobberingh EE. Factors influencing the composition of the intestinal microbiota in early infancy. Paediatrics. 2006;118(2):511–521. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-2824.
Dominguez-Bello MG, Costello EK, Contreras M, Magris M, Hidalgo G, Fierer N, Knight R. W. W. T. KHINE ET AL. Delivery mode shapes the acquisition and structure of the initial microbiota across multiple body habitats in newborns. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2010;107(26):11971–11975. doi:10.1073/pnas.1002601107.
Asnicar F, Manara S, Zolfo M, Truong DT, Scholz M, Armanini F, Ferretti P, Gorfer V, Pedrotti A, Tett A, et al. Studying vertical microbiome transmission from mothers to infants by strain-level metagenomics profiling. mSystem. 2017;2(1):e00164–16. doi:10.1128/mSystems.00164-16.
Funkhouser LJ, Bordenstein SR. Mom knows best: the universality of maternal microbial transmission. PLoS Biol. 2013;11(8):e1001631. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001631.
Roger LC, Costabile A, Holland DT, Hoyles L, McCartney AL. Examination of fecal Bifidobacterium populations in breast- and formula-fed infants during the first 18 months of life. Microbiology Society. 2010;156(11):3329–3341. doi:10.1099/mic.0.043224-0.
Koenig JE, Spor A, Scalfone N, Fricker AD, Stombaugh J, Knight R, Angenent LT, Ley RE. Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011;108(Suppl.1):4578–4585. doi:10.1073/pnas.1000081107.
Ferretti P, Pasolli E, Tett A, Asnicar F, Gorfer V, Fedi S, Armanini F, Truong DT, Manara S, Zolfo M, et al. Mother-to-infant microbial transmission from different body sites shapes the developing infant gut microbiome. Cell Host Microbe. 2018;24:133–145. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2018.06.005.
Yassour M, Jason E, Hogstrom LJ, Arthur TD, Tripathi S, Siljander H, Selvenius J, Oikarinen S, Hyöty H, Virtanen SM, et al. Strain-level analysis of mother-tochild bacterial transmission during the first few months of life. Cell Host Microbe. 2018;24:146–154. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2018.06.007.
Bäckhed F, Roswall J, Peng Y, Feng Q, Jia H, KovatchevaDatchary P, Li Y, Xia Y, Xie H, Zhong H, et al. Dynamics and stabilization of the human gut microbiome during the first year of life. Cell Host Microbe. 2015;17:690–730. doi:10.1016/j.chom.2015.04.004.
Makino H. Bifidobacterial strains in the intestines of newborns originate from their mothers. Biosci Microbiota Food Health. 2018;37:79–85. doi:10.12938/bmfh.18-011.
Vaishampayan PA, Kuehl JV, Froula JL, Morgan JL, Ochman H, Francino MP. Comparative metagenomics and population dynamics of the gut microbiota inmother an infant. Genome Biol Evol. 2010;2:53–66. doi:10.1093/gbe/evp057.
Milani C, Turroni F, Duranti S, Lugli GA, Mancabelli L, Ferrario C, van Sinderen D, Ventura M. Genomics of the genus Bifidobacterium reveals species-specific adaptation to the glycan-rich gut environment. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2015;82(4):980–991. doi:10.1128/AEM.03500-15.
Duranti S, Lugli GA, Mancabelli L, Armanini F, Turroni F, James K, Ferretti P, Gorfer V, Ferrario C, Milani C, et al. Maternal inheritance of bifidobacterial communities and bifidophages in infants through vertical transmission. Microbiome. 2017;5:66. doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0282-6.
Milani C, Duranti S, Bottacini F, Casey E, Turroni F, Mahony J, Belzer C, Delgado Palacio S, Arboleya Montes S, Mancabelli L, et al. The first microbial colonizers of the human gut: composition, activities and health implications of the infant gut microbiota. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2017;81(4):e00036–17.
34. Mulligan CM, Friedman JE. Maternal modifiers of the infant gut microbiota: metabolic consequences. J Endocrinol. 2017;235(1):R1–R12. doi:10.1530/JOE-17-0303.
Fujimura KE, Sitarik AR, Havstad S, Lin DL, Levan S, Fadrosh D, Panzer AR, LaMere B, Rackaityte E, Lukacs NW, et al. Neonatal gut microbiota associates with childhood multisensitised atopy and T cell differentiation. Nat Med. 2016;22(10):1187–1191. doi:10.1038/nm.4176.
Ismail IH, Boyle RJ, Licciardi PV, Oppedisano F, Lahtinen S, Robins-Browne RM, Tang MLK. Early gut colonization by Bifidobacterium breve and B. catenulatum differentially modulates eczema risk in children at high risk of developing allergic disease. Paediatric Allergy Immunol. 2016;27(8):838–846. doi:10.1111/pai.12646.
Wampach L, Heintz-Buschart A, Fritz JV, RamiroGarcia J, Habier J, Herold M, Narayanasamy S, Kaysen A, Hogan AH, Bindl L, et al. Birth mode is associated with earliest strain-conferred gut microbiome functions and immunostimulatory potential. Nat Commun. 2018;9:5091. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-07631-x.
Fouhy F, Watkins C, Hill CJ, ÓShea C-A, Nagle B, Dempsey EM, ÓToole PW, Ross RP, Ryan CA, Stanton C. Perinatal factors affect the gut microbiota up to four years after birth. Nat Commun. 2019;10:1517. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09252-4.
Shao Y, Forster SC, Tsaliki E, Vervier K, Strang A, Simpson N, Kumar N, Stares MD, Rodger A, Brocklehurst P, et al. Stunted microbiota and opportunistic pathogen colonisation in caesarean-section birth. Nature. 2019;574:117–121. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1560-1.
Nogacka A, Salazar N, Suárez M, Milani C, Arboleya S, Solís G, Fernández N, Alaez L, Hernández-Barranco AM, de Los Reyes-gavilán CG, et al. Impact of intrapartum antimicrobial prophylaxis upon the intestinal microbiota and the prevalence of antibiotic resistance genes in vaginally delivered full-term neonates. Microbiome. 2017;5(1):93. doi:10.1186/s40168-017-0313-3.
Neuman H, Forsythe P, Uzan A, Avni O, Koren O. Antibiotics in early life: dysbiosis and the damage done. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2018;42:489–499. doi:10.1093/femsre/fuy018.
Khine WWT, Rahayu ES, See TY, Kuah S, Salminen S, Nakayama J, Lee YK. Indonesian children fecal microbiome from birth until weaning was different from microbiomes of their mothers, Gut Microbes, doi: 10.1080/19490976.2020.1761240.
Dzidic M, Boix-Amorós A, Selma-Royo M, Mira A, Collado MC. Gut microbiota and mucosal immunity in the neonate. Med Sci (Basel). 2018;6:E56.
Aakko J, Kumar H, Rautava S, Wise A, Autran C, Bode L, Isolauri E, Salminen S. Human milk oligosaccharide categories define the microbiota composition in human colostrum. Benef Microbes. 2017;8(4):563–567. doi:10.3920/BM2016.0185.
Marcobal A, Barboza M, Froehlich JW, Block DE, German JB, Lebrilla CB, Mills DA. Consumption of human milk oligosaccharides by gut-related microbes. J Agric Food Chem. 2010;58(9):5334–5340. doi:10.1021/jf9044205.
Duranti S, Lugli GA, Milani C, James K, Mancabelli L, Turroni F, Alessandri G, Mangifesta M, Mancino W, Ossiprandi MC, et al. Bifidobacterium bifidum and the infant gut microbiota: an intriguing case of microbehost co-evolution. Environ Microbiol. 2019;21 (10):3683–3695. doi:10.1111/1462-2920.14705.
Andreas NJ, Kampmann B, Mehring L-DK. Human breast milk: a review on its composition and bioactivity. Early Hum Dev. 2015;91(11):629–635. doi:10.1016/j. earlhumdev.2015.08.013.
Hayashi H, Shibata K, Sakamoto M, Tomita S, Benno Y. Prevotella copri sp. Nov. and Prevotella stercorea sp. Nov., isolated from human feces. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 2007;57:941–946. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.64778-0.
Wahlstrom A, Sayin SI, Marschall H-U, Backhed F. Intestinal crosstalk between bile acids and microbiota and its impact on host metabolism. Cell Metab. 2016;24(1):41–50. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2016.05.005.
Masaru. T, Sanefuji M, Morokuma S, Yoden M, Momoda R, Sonomoto K, Ogawa M, Kato K, Nakayama J. The association between gut microbiota development and maturation of intestinal bile acid metabolism in the first three years of healthy Japanese infants. Gut Microbes. 2019. doi:10.1080/19490976.2019.1650997.
Round JL, Lee SM, Li J, Tran G, Jabri B, Chatila TA, Mazmanian SK. The Toll-like receptor 2 pathway establishes colonisation by a commensal of the human microbiota. Science. 2011;332:974–977. doi:10.1126/science.1206095.
Moeller AH, Suzuki TA, Phifer-Rixey M, Nachman MW. Transmission modes of the mammalian gut microbiota. Science. 2018;362:453–457. doi:10.1126/science.aat7164.
Kim Y-G, Sakamoto K, Seo SU, Pickard JM, Gillilland MG 3rd, Pudlo NA, Hoostal M, Li X, Wang TD, Feehley T, et al. Neonatal acquisition of Clostridia species protects against colonization by bacterial pathogens. Science. 2017;356:315–319. doi:10.1126/science.aag2029.
Oyedemi BOM, Kotsia EM, Stapleton PD, Gibbons S. Capsaicin and gingerol analogues inhibit the growth of efflux-multidrug resistant bacteria and R-plasmids conjugal transfer. J Ethnopharmacol. 2019;245:111871. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2019.111871.
Kariu T, Nakao R, Ikeda T, Nakashima K, Potempa J, Imamura T. Inhibition of gingipains and Porphyromonas gingivalis growth and biofilm formation by prenyl flavonoids. J Periodontal Res. 2017;52(1):89–96. doi:10.1111/jre.12372.
Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Lamb AJ. Alkaloids: an overview of their antibacterial, antibiotic-enhancing and antivirulence activities. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014;44:377–386. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2014.06.001.
Are A, Aronsson L, Wang S, Greicius G, Lee Y-K, Gustafsson JA, Pettersson S, Arulampalam V. Enterococcus faecalis from newborn babies regulate endogenous PPARgamma activity and IL-10 levels in colonic epithelial cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:1943–1948. doi:10.1073/pnas.0711734105.
Wang SG, Hibberd ML, Pettersson S, Lee Y-K. Enterococcus faecalis from healthy infants modulates inflammation through MAPK signaling pathways. PLoS One. 2014;9(5):e97523. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0097523.