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相比之下的,他的心物二元論(Mind–body dualism)則認為人類是有非物理性的思維物(res cogitans),以及有物質實體的廣延物( res extensa)。笛卡爾的理論也受到唯物論者的挑戰,十八世紀的唯物論代表人物之一,法國醫生和哲學家朱利安.奧弗雷.拉.美特利(Julien Offray de La Mettrie)在《著作人是機器》(Man a Machine :法文:L’homme Machine)中反對物質與靈魂分離的二元論,認為人也是機器,且物質的不同組合能產生人的思想。
面對複雜的社會情境,我們時常會遇到沒有標準答案並讓人陷入兩難的困境,此時我們的大腦會對該情境進行運算,評估任何決定可能帶來的利弊。透過功能性磁振造影(fMRI)的研究發現,情緒是影響與人有關的道德兩難處境(personal moral dilemma)的決策重要因素之一。
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當人們進行與人有關的道德兩難(例如:將超載的救生艇上的一個人趕出去來拯救其他人)和與人無關的道德兩難(例如:保留路上撿到的錢包)時,情緒性的處理程序會影響與人有關的道德兩難,並啟動重要相關的腦區包括內側前額(medial frontal gyrus)、後側扣帶皮質(posterior cingulate)以及左右兩側的角回 (left and right angular gyri)[2]。
The Triune Brain in Evolution. Role in Paleocerebral Functions. Paul D. MacLean. Plenum, New York, 1990. xxiv, 672 pp., illus.
Greene JD, Sommerville RB, Nystrom LE, Darley JM, Cohen JD. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science. 2001 Sep 14;293(5537):2105-8. doi: 10.1126/science.1062872. PMID: 11557895.
Raine A, Yang Y. Neural foundations to moral reasoning and antisocial behavior. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci. 2006 Dec;1(3):203-13. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsl033. PMID: 18985107; PMCID: PMC2555414.
Kolla NJ, Patel R, Meyer JH, Chakravarty MM. Association of monoamine oxidase-A genetic variants and amygdala morphology in violent offenders with antisocial personality disorder and high psychopathic traits. Sci Rep. 2017 Aug 29;7(1):9607. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-08351-w. PMID: 28851912; PMCID: PMC5575239.