大部分人類歷史中,成人的乳糖酶常態處於「關閉」狀態。若你夠幸運能耐受乳糖,表示在你的乳糖酶控制區域(乳糖酶基因附近的 DNA 延伸)中有個突變,讓乳糖酶基因在成人時期能隨時打開。你的先祖有可能是喝牛奶的牧民,造成乳糖耐受的突變首先在東非和斯堪地那維亞的畜牧族群中傳開,而且速度極快。從人類首次發現畜牧生活型態開始,大約八千年,不過是曇花一現的時間,一些族群就從零突變躍升到九○%突變。這就是天擇在我們基因體留下最有力的近代特徵之一。
基因表現的其中一個過程:RNA 聚合酶轉錄出 mRNA。By Genomics Education Programme (Process of transcription) [CC BY 2.0], via Wikimedia Commons
當此聚合酶要轉錄一個基因,它首先會接上基因的 DNA,沿著一個個 DNA 字母滑動,並將 RNA 分子串在一起,而 RNA 字母序列會與基因的相同。細菌也是如此表現它們使用的乳糖酶:β-半乳糖苷酶(beta-galactosidase,這個字很累贅,通常簡寫成 beta-gal)。這個酵素會將乳糖切成兩個較簡單的醣類─—葡萄糖及半乳糖,其他代謝酵素可以從它們取得能量和碳。
為了調控 β-半乳糖苷酶基因,細胞用轉錄調控蛋白(transcriptional regulator)來操控轉錄。此蛋白質基本上只做一件事:占據基因附近的一小段 DNA 延伸。
在細胞的液體環境中,多種調控蛋白在其中漂來漂去,當任何一個蛋白遇到特定 DNA 序列(DNA「字碼」)時就會結合並黏住。不同調控的蛋白有相異的關鍵字,β-半乳糖苷酶調控蛋白辨認的關鍵字是「GAATTGTGAGC」。
讓辨認工作可行的,就是像讓酵素能夠工作的摺疊蛋白質的形狀。調控蛋白和 DNA 必須有互補的形狀,類似樂高積木,一塊積木上的幾個小突起與另一塊上面的凹陷緊密貼合。這個比喻十分恰當,但仍有限制,因為形狀不是一切,例如兩個分子還需要帶有互補電性,否則會相互排斥。而且一套標準樂高積木只有幾十種形狀,但分子卻不同,蛋白質有數萬種形狀,DNA甚至還更多—就跟可能的DNA序列一樣多
基因調控有一點跟樂高有點像:積木上的形狀會決定兩塊零件能不能接合在一起,基因調控則取決於 DNA 和調控蛋白是否能互補結合。via wikimedia
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