關於綠建築的標準,讓我們先回到 1990 年,當時英國建築研究機構(BRE)首次發布有關「建築研究發展環境評估工具(Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method,BREEAM®)」,是世界上第一個建築永續評估方法。美國則在綠建築委員會成立後,於 1998 年推出「能源與環境設計領導認證」(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, LEED)這套評估系統,加速推動了全球綠建築行動。
在做這些模擬的研究者中,有個很有名的日本名字,叫做 Manabe,他的論文會一直出現在大家眼前,也就是(只有我們在乎的)《 Manabe 1969, CLIMATE AND THE OCEAN CIRCULATION I : THE ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND THE HYDROLOGY OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE 》[1],最近因為大量的報導,我才知道原來他名字的漢字是——真鍋淑郎,也就是第一個地表模型的開發者,而在 2021 年時,他拿下了諾貝爾獎。
後來的論文也會稱真鍋的地表模式是水桶模型(因為其計算土壤濕度的方法宛如水桶一樣,滿了就去除,而非經土壤中水流方法流走的)。但無論如何,第一個地表模型,基本上就是真鍋與他在普林斯頓的好夥伴們發展出來的。因此,真鍋的地表模型也在後來的論文中,尊稱為第一代的地表模式,建立起祖師爺等級的封號(Sellers et al., 1997)。
1980年後,在個人電腦逐漸普及後,地表模式也開始百家爭鳴,其中真鍋的身影也就只存在各家論文的引用中了。後來再出現時,則是在地表模式大戰——PILPS(Project for the Intercomparison of Land-surface Parametrization Schemes)[2]。這個計畫中,以水桶模型這個稱號出現。基本上始於 1995 年的 PILPS 計畫,就是利用荷蘭的 Cabauw 量測站測到的氣象狀況,來驗證各家第二代的地表模式中,誰才是最強的。
Manabe S. (1969). CLIMATE AND THE OCEAN CIRCULATION 1: I. THE ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND THE HYDROLOGY OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE. Mon. Weather Rev. 97:739–774.
Pitman, A. J., Henderson-Sellers, A., Desborough, C. E., Yang, Z. L., Abramopoulos, F., Boone, A., … & Xue, Y. (1999). Key results and implications from phase 1 (c) of the Project for Intercomparison of Land-surface Parametrization Schemes. Climate Dynamics, 15(9), 673-684.
Jarvis PG. (1976). The Interpretation of the Variations in Leaf Water Potential and Stomatal Conductance Found in Canopies in the Field. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 273:593–610.
Farquhar, G. D., von Caemmerer, S. V., & Berry, J. A. (1980). A biochemical model of photosynthetic CO 2 assimilation in leaves of C 3 species. Planta, 149(1), 78-90.
Ball JT., Woodrow IE., Berry JA. (1987). A model predicting stomatal conductance and its contribution to the control of photosynthesis under different environmental conditions. In: Progress in photosynthesis research. Springer, 221–224.
Sellers PJ., Dickinson RE., Randall DA., Betts AK., Hall FG., Berry JA., Collatz GJ., Denning AS., Mooney HA., Nobre CA., Sato N., Field CB., Henderson-Sellers A. (1997). Modeling the Exchanges of Energy, Water, and Carbon Between Continents and the Atmosphere. Science 275:502–509
Dai Y., Zeng X., Dickinson RE., Baker I., Bonan GB., Bosilovich MG., Denning AS., Dirmeyer PA., Houser PR., Niu G. (2003). The common land model. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 84.
Best MJ., Pryor M., Clark DB., Rooney GG., Essery RLH., Ménard CB., Edwards JM., Hendry MA., Porson A., Gedney N., Mercado LM., Sitch S., Blyth E., Boucher O., Cox PM., Grimmond CSB., Harding RJ. (2011). The Joint UK Land Environment Simulator (JULES), model description – Part 1: Energy and water fluxes. Geosci Model Dev 4:677–699
Pitman AJ. (2003). The evolution of, and revolution in, land surface schemes designed for climate models. Int J Clim. 23:479–510.
Kollet SJ., Maxwell RM. (2006). Integrated surface-groundwater flow modeling: A free-surface overland flow boundary condition in a parallel groundwater flow model. 29:945–958.
Boone A., Habets F., Noilhan J., Clark D., Dirmeyer P., Fox S., Gusev Y., Haddeland I., Koster R., Lohmann D. 2004. The Rhone-Aggregation land surface scheme intercomparison project: An overview. J. Clim. 17:187–208.
Manabe, S., & Wetherald, R. T. (1975). The effects of doubling the CO2 concentration on the climate of a general circulation model. Journal of Atmospheric Sciences, 32(1), 3-15.