關於綠建築的標準,讓我們先回到 1990 年,當時英國建築研究機構(BRE)首次發布有關「建築研究發展環境評估工具(Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method,BREEAM®)」,是世界上第一個建築永續評估方法。美國則在綠建築委員會成立後,於 1998 年推出「能源與環境設計領導認證」(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, LEED)這套評估系統,加速推動了全球綠建築行動。
間接互惠(indirect reciprocity)的概念認為,受益者並不是直接回報給同一位利他的施恩者,而是會把恩惠轉給其他人。A 幫助 B,B 再幫助 C,C 再幫助 D,依此類推。於是,恩惠就能在社群裡傳出去,遲早也能回到 A 身上。種下的因,總有一天能得到最後的果。
而且這還能談到下一個層次:如果有個 Z,在 A 幫助 B 時,親眼見證了這件事,發現 A 是個慷慨的好人,他也會因為想和 A 建立關係,所以願意幫助 A。於是,就算這兩個人無法符合直接互惠所需要的「後會有期」條件,也能因為整個群體的利他行為而受益。樂於助人,自己就更可能得到幫助,至於那些不想幫助別人、只想貪小便宜的人,則是可能遭到懲罰或受到排擠。像這樣的間接互惠,是人類一種格外複雜的合作形式,需要兩項其他動物都辦不到的條件。
英文有句諺語說「騙子發不了財」(cheats never prosper),但不能說完全正確:騙子常常在短時間內還是能得逞,特別是在那些規模比較大、大家彼此比較不認識的社群;只是遲早仍然會東窗事發,讓自己名聲掃地。所以,想讓間接互惠的機制不被那些只想貪小便宜的人搞垮,聊八卦就是一個關鍵的必備條件,而且無論是營火旁、或是茶水間,人類實在是哪裡都能聊。事實上,相較於其他靈長類動物是用理毛之類的活動來建立關係,人類是以閒嗑牙、聊八卦取代了這些活動。
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