美國海軍陸戰隊列兵西奧多・J・米勒(Theodore J. Miller)表現出「千碼凝視」(thousand-yard stare),是「戰鬥反應壓力」的常見表現,包含注意力不集中、沮喪和疲倦的凝視。圖/Wikipedia
戰爭後的第二次創傷
創傷後壓力症候群 PTSD 被發現以前,已遭受精神創傷的士兵們可能需要面對社會歧視所造成的二次傷害。當時由於對彈震症的成因了解極少,有士兵因此被指控逃兵以及懦弱被送上軍事法庭,甚至因此被處決。越戰後雖然試圖重新融入社區的遭受創傷的退伍軍人數量相當驚人,但他們既無法獲得適當的治療,也無法從退伍軍人管理局獲得殘疾撫卹金,導致美國產生極大的家庭以及社會問題,也催生許多描述退伍士兵因戰爭創傷導致無法正常回歸社會的經典影視作品,如電影《越戰獵鹿人 The Deer Hunter 》(1978),以及《第一滴血 First Blood 》(1982)。
McGinty EE, Presskreischer R, Han H, Barry CL. Psychological Distress and Loneliness Reported by US Adults in 2018 and April 2020. JAMA. 2020;324(1):93–94. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.9740
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (1995). Trauma and transformation: Growing in the aftermath of suffering. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Tedeschi, R. G., & Calhoun, L. G. (2004).Foundations and Empirical Evidence.Psychological inquiry, 15(1), 1-18
蕭仁釗、 李介文(2014)。創傷與創傷後成長。國教新知;61卷1期,P54 – 61。
Pietrzak RH, Tsai J, Southwick SM. Association of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder with posttraumatic psychological growth among US veterans during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4(4):e214972.
Stallard, P., Pereira, A., & Barros, L. Post-traumatic growth during the COVID-19 pandemic in carers of children in Portugal and the UK: Cross-sectional online survey. BJPsych Open. 2021; 7(1), E37.
事實上,將人類深層創傷的苦難標示為 PTSD 精神醫學範疇下的診斷,其診斷系統源自於 1948 年世界衛生組織(World Health Organization, WHO)編印的《疾病的國際分類》(International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems,簡稱 ICD)以及 1952 年「美國精神醫學會」(American Psychiatry Association)出版編印的《精神疾病的診斷與統計手冊》(Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,簡稱 DSM)。這套源自於歐美社會的分類與診斷系統,日後逐漸成為放諸四海皆準的國際通用標準,然而珍恩在書中提出了一個讓人深思的問題:這是否意味著人類苦難的美國化?
Becker, G. 1997. Disrupted lives: How people create meaning in a chaotic world. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press
Conrad, Peter .1975. “The Discovery of Hyperkinesis: Notes on the Medicalization of Deviant Behavior.” Social Problems 23: 12-21.
Frank, A. W. 1995. The wounded storyteller: Body, illness and ethics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Garro, L. C. 1992. Chronic illness and the construction of narratives. In M. J. D. V. Good, P. E. Brodwin, B. J. Good, & A. Kleinman (Eds.), Pain as human experience: An anthropological perspective (pp. 100-137). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Kleinman, A. 1988. Rethinking Psychiatry: From Cultural Category to Personal Experience. New York: The Free Press.
Kleinman, A., Das, V., and M. Lock. 1997. Social Suffering. Berkely: University of California Press.
Scull, Andrew T. 1975. “From Madness to Mental Illness: Medical Men
as Moral Entrepreneurs.” Archives of European Sociology 16(2): 218- 251.