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不管是大型電腦或個人電腦都需具有「中央處理單元」(central process unit,簡稱 CPU)。CPU 是電腦的「腦」,其電子電路負責處理所有軟體正確運作所需的所有任務,如算術、邏輯、控制、輸入和輸出操作等等。雖然早期的設計即可以讓一個指令同時做兩、三件不同的工作;但為了簡單化,我們在這裡所談的工作將只是執行算術和邏輯運算的工作(arithmetic and logic unit,簡稱 ALU),如將兩個數加在一起。在這一簡化的定義下,CPU 在任何一個時刻均只能執行一件工作而已。
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在個人電腦剛出現只能用於一般事物的處理時,CPU 均能非常勝任地完成任務。但電腦圖形和動畫的出現帶來了第一批運算密集型工作負載後,CPU 開始顯示心有餘而力不足:例如電玩動畫需要應用程式處理數以萬計的像素(pixel),每個像素都有自己的顏色、光強度、和運動等, 使得 CPU 根本沒辦法在短時間內完成這些工作。於是出現了主機板上之「顯示插卡」來支援補助 CPU。
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公元二○二二年的諾貝爾生理或醫學獎頒發給帕波(Svante Pääbo),表揚他將尼安德塔人 DNA 重現於世的貢獻。尼安德塔人去世已久,僅存遺骸;從這類樣本中取得的 DNA,稱作古代 DNA。相關研究起步於一九八○年代,尼安德塔人基因組可謂集大成之作。帕波當年為了克服難關,組建龐大的團隊,《我們源自何方?》(Who we are and how we got here)的作者賴克(David Reich)正是其中的主要成員。
所幸賴克依然清晰地表達,多年鑽研所得的幾項寶貴見解。一項重要發現是:過往人類的遷徙與混血相當頻繁。從不同年代、地區的古代 DNA 判斷,遠早於最近數百年的歐洲人殖民以前,世界上多數地區都經歷過不只一波遷徙潮。例如分佈於歐亞大陸廣大範圍的印歐語系,以及印度複雜的歷史,古代 DNA 都帶來全新的認知,書中有不少篇幅介紹。
1837 年手稿《印度 72 種階級(Seventy-two Specimens of Castes in India)》,描繪了當時印度 72 種不同宗教、種族、職業的男女圖像,真實反映 19 世紀印度社會階層的情狀。 圖/wikipedia
古代 DNA 突飛猛進下,考古學受到極大震撼,一些人在討論時,將其類比為一九四九年碳同位素定年(俗稱的碳十四)後的另一次衝擊。然而賴克認為古代 DNA 的影響更大,類似十七世紀的光學顯微鏡;顯微鏡讓人們見到前所未見的新世界,古代 DNA 也是如此,而隨之而來的倫理等問題也有待解決。
總之,許多事一旦開始就無法回頭。精確的定年法問世後,考古學對年代的問題就不再能打模糊仗,古代遺傳學的進展亦同。從本書發表的二○一八年到現在,古代 DNA 研究的浪潮持續狂飆,可以預見未來幾年仍不會停歇。這本由最前線科學家親自撰寫的書,一些內容也許不是那麼好懂,卻足夠讓讀者跟上這波科學浪潮,大家都能在其中找到感興趣的部分細細品味。