裸蓋菇素的研究引起了美國中央情報局 CIA 的注意,不過不是因為什麼違法亂紀的問題,而是他們⋯⋯也想「瞭解更多」!1950年代 CIA 有項名為 MK-Ultra 2 的精神控制計畫,希望找到一些可以作為吐真劑、審訊和行為操縱工具的潛力藥物。他們的實驗藥物包括裸蓋菇素、迷幻藥 LSD、嗎啡、海洛因、一種萃取自仙人掌的致幻劑麥斯卡林等,並在監獄、醫院、學校,甚至從巧立名目的慈善基金會裡招募試驗對象。3
Single-dose psilocybin for treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder: A case report – PMC (nih.gov)↩︎
Single-dose psilocybin-assisted therapy in major depressive disorder: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomised clinical trial – eClinicalMedicine (thelancet.com)↩︎
Percentage of Heavy Drinking Days Following Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy vs Placebo in the Treatment of Adult Patients With Alcohol Use Disorder: A Randomized Clinical Trial | Substance Use and Addiction Medicine | JAMA Psychiatry | JAMA Network↩︎
Long-term Follow-up of Psilocybin-facilitated Smoking Cessation – PMC (nih.gov)↩︎
Frontiers | Persisting Reductions in Cannabis, Opioid, and Stimulant Misuse After Naturalistic Psychedelic Use: An Online Survey (frontiersin.org)↩︎
在濠梁之辯後的兩千多年,美國著名哲學家湯瑪斯.內格爾(Thomas Nagel)也從想像自己是蝙蝠(注意不是小小鳥)的過程中獲得靈感,並在 1974 年發表了〈成為一隻蝙蝠可能是什麼樣子〉(What is it like to be a bat?)。他認為主觀經驗無法透過客觀描述來獲得,是心靈與物理之間的解釋鴻溝(Explanatory Gap)。簡單來說,就算我們知道蝙蝠是透過聲納來感知並飛行在空中,但因為我們不是真正的身歷其境成為一隻蝙蝠,我們還是無法知道作為蝙蝠是什麼樣的感覺。
莊子和惠施的辯論背後探討了意識的本質,也引發人們對於知覺和主觀體驗的一種思考。即使經過數千年的探索,「意識究竟是怎麼產生的?」仍是一個深奧而又複雜的問題,也是所謂的「意識的困難問題(Hard Problem of Consciousness)」。從哲學角度,感質無法透過描述去感受,但從科學上來說,我們無法否認大腦是產生主觀感受的關鍵,這也讓神經科學家們好奇是否能找到感質的神經機制。
Greyson, B. (2000). Near-death experiences. In E. Cardeña, S. J. Lynn, & S. Krippner (Eds.), Varieties of anomalous experience: Examining the scientific evidence (pp. 315–352). American Psychological Association.
Chawla, L. S., Akst, S., Junker, C., Jacobs, B., and Seneff, M. G. (2009). Surges of electroencephalogram activity at the time of death: a case series. J. Palliat. Med. 12, 1095–1100. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2009.0159
Borjigin, J., Lee, U. C., Liu, T., Pal, D., Huff, S., Klarr, D., et al. (2013). Surge of neurophysiological coherence and connectivity in the dying brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 14432–14437. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1308285110
Vicente R, Rizzuto M, Sarica C, Yamamoto K, Sadr M, Khajuria T, Fatehi M, Moien-Afshari F, Haw CS, Llinas RR, Lozano AM, Neimat JS and Zemmar A (2022) Enhanced Interplay of Neuronal Coherence and Coupling in the Dying Human Brain. Front. Aging Neurosci. 14:813531. doi: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.813531
Xu G, Mihaylova T, Li D, Tian F, Farrehi PM, Parent JM, Mashour GA, Wang MM, Borjigin J. Surge of neurophysiological coupling and connectivity of gamma oscillations in the dying human brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2023 May 9;120(19):e2216268120. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2216268120.